Written by: Alec Sun

The purpose of this article is to provide a comparison of Schein’s proposed three models of consultation. It is done with a set of assumptions on each model. The assumptions enable us to examine and understand the consultation interventions to be effective.

Introduction:
The term consultation includes a wide range of advisory activities, covering an expanding range of areas of special knowledge and expertise. As early as 1969, Edgar Schein was developing a typology of consultation models based on key underlying assumptions about helping. In Schein's view, it is important for the helper to understand what assumptions he or she brings to the helping process, because if these assumptions are erroneous, the helping process will be undermined. {1}

Shein’s three models:
Edgar Schein proposed three models of consultation based on assumptions inherent in different helping styles. The first two models, purchase-of-expertise and doctor-patient, focus on the content of organizational problems. The client gives the problem to the consultant to find and implement solutions. The third, the process consultation model, focuses on how organizational problems are solved. The client and consultant collaborate throughout the problem-solving effort to find workable solutions. Because of the nature of organizations' cultures and the underlying assumptions that determine how they operate, Schein {2} suggests that it is most efficacious for consultants to begin in the process consultation mode and involve the client in the investigation of the problem.

Purchase of Expertise Model:
This is the most common of why consultation clients approach to consultants for help. Because there is some kind of problems in the organization, they hire a consultant to fix it. The consultant needs to provide some kind of expertise to solve the problem. In essence, the clients send a message, “I have found this problem that I can’t solve. But I trust that you can fix it and I will pay you.”
For this model to work well the following assumptions have to be met:
1. The client’s diagnosis must be the real true problem.
If the client has made an error in deciding what the problem is, the consultant may fix the wrong problem, and the consultation will be an ineffective service.
2. The client has to identify the consultant’s capabilities to solve the problems.
It is the client’s responsibility to make sure the consultant has the ability and skills to fix the problem and meet the client’s needs. If an error is made, it is client’s fault, because the client misevaluates the consultant’s expertise.
3. The client has to precisely communicate what the problem is.
The client must make sure the problem has been communicated accurately and check whether the consultant has received the message correctly.
4. The client has the responsibility for any kind of side effects of consultation.
The consultant has no obligation when negative consequences occur because change in one part of the organization required by the client may have a ripple effect through the system.

Doctor-patient Model:
With the doctor-patient model, the client knows that something is wrong but is not sure what it is or how to fix it. Therefore, the consultant is brought in and both to make a diagnosis and to provide a prescription for a solution to the problem once it is identified. As with the purchase-of-expertise model, the doctor-patient model has several key assumptions that need to be met for it to be effective.
1. The client has to know the “sickness” and interpret it correctly.
The client presumes that the problem lies in a particular area or department of the organization and brings in a consultant who specializes in that area. Little help will result if the client is wrong.
2. The client trusts the diagnosis.
It is easy for consultants with a certain area of expertise to make diagnoses within their area of expertise and miss other problem areas.
3. The client will buy in the results of diagnosis, implement the prescription, and accept the consequences.
It is possible that the client will not like the diagnosis or the prescribed solution because that the proposed solution may not fit well into the organizational climate and culture. If that is the case, the fault is with the client for accepting the mode without considering the consequences.
4. The client will be able to remain healthy after the consultant leaves.
This model assumes the client will be able to remain effective after the consulting process. Because nothing in the doctor-patient model suggests any new client learning of problem-solving ability, however, this assumption may be erroneous.

Process Consultation Model:
This model requires a collaborative relationship between consultant and client. This joint effort between the two encourages the client to provide input throughout the process. The client's involvement can help to break down potential resistance and resentment to proposed solutions that may occur if the consultant worked independently. It can also help the client to learn problem-solving processes for future use. As with the content-oriented models, several assumptions need to be met for process consultation to be the best model for a client.
1. The client not only needs help in making a diagnosis but would also learn from participating in making the diagnosis.
Working in this manner will teach the client the process of diagnosing, gathering and interpreting data, and drawing conclusions and implementing workable interventions.
2. The client has constructive intent and some problem-solving ability.
For this model to provide an effective helping format, the client has to have some knowledge of problem finding and solving skills.
3. The client is the one who knows what form of intervention or solution will work best within the organization.
The consultant assumes that it is the client, not the consultant who can decide on the intervention, because only he or she knows what will fit within the total personality of the group or organizational culture. {3}
4. The client will work like an assistant for the consultant.
It implies that the client has to consider that part of consultation objective is to learn problem-solving ability and not just a solution to the immediate problem.

Conclusion:
Schein presented three consultation models. The first two are based on his study of existing consulting practice in different industries and the third one is an innovative study of his own practice in organizational culture change.
I believe that content and process in consultation are interconnected. Therefore, the consultation models should be interactive, not isolated. Since each model rests on a set of assumptions, a consultant should understand and know how these consultation models intervening effectively. As a consultant, I would ask the question “When should I use each model?” instead “Which would be my favorite model?"

Reference:
{1} Edgar Schein, Process Consultation,
Pearson Custom Publishing, 2000
{2} Gary Rockwood, Schein’s Process Versus Content,
Journal of Consulting & Development, Jul/Aug 93.
{3} Edgar Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership,
Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1997